UNIT – II Eastern and
Western Schools of Philosophy
Eastern Schools of Philosophy
Traditional Indian
schools of Philosophy and Education:
The Indian schools of philosophy may be classified
into two – orthodox and heterodox. While
orthodox schools accept the authority of Vedas, heterodox schools reject the
Vedas. Among those which accept the
authority of Vedas, there are two subdivisions namely those that are based
directly on the Vedic texts and others, which accept the Vedic texts but base
themselves on independent grounds.
The schools and the scheme of classification can be
tabulated as follows:
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The Vedanta Philosophy:
Vedas:
The word Veda,
originates from the root ‘vid’, which means ‘to know’. So etymologically the word ‘Veda’ means
‘knowledge’. The Vedic system of
education is aimed at leading the individual from the darkness of ignorance to
the light of knowledge. The study of Vedas aimed at the all-round development
of the potentialities of the individuals.
Vedic religion or the religion of the Vedas is the oldest of the
religious activity known to have existed in India. Most of the beliefs, practices and
speculations born in India, are derived from Vedism only.
Vedas are known as ‘Sruthi’. ‘Sruthi’ means directly heard divine revelations. Other texts and classics including Ramayana
and Mahabharata are ‘Smruthis’.
‘Smruthi’ means remembered and passed onto posterity. Vedas are eternal and independent of man. The term ‘Veda’ means knowledge or
wisdom. The ‘Vedas’ means the book of
knowledge.
Basic Vedas are divided into four
kinds. They are,
i)
Rig
Veda:
Oldest and largest of all the four
Vedas. It is full of prayers and praises
of gods and goddesses. All these prayers
and praises are grouped under various titles and are in the form of ‘Mantras’.
ii)
Yajur
Veda:
The major part of the Yajur Veda is
in the prose order. It deals with yagas,
rituals and sacrifies. The Yajur Veda
has two different parts – Krishna (black) Yajur Veda and Shukla (white) Yajur
Veda.
iii)
Sama
Veda:
It is the sources of music. It is totally rhythmic in nature. Most of the mantras of the Sama Veda are same
as the mantras of Rig Veda.
iv)
Atharvana
Veda:
The Atharvana Veda is the different
from the first three Vedas. It comprises
of a special class of texts. It deals
with medicine, magic and certain special kind of rituals.
Constituents of Vedas:
Each Veda is divided into four parts. They are
a) Collection
of Mantras (Samhitas)
b) Brahmanas
c) Aranyakas
d) Upanishads
a)
Collection
of Mantras (Samhitas):
Prayers directed to different gods
are known as mantras. It was thought
prayers towards different gods help to get their blessings. The period of learning the Samhitas was
called as Brahmacharyashrama.
b)
Brahmanas:
Brahmanas deals with rituals and
yagas. Conducting yagas are considered
as the best means of satisfying gods. This
period is known as Grihastashrama.
c)
Aranyakas:
Aranyakas prescribes the practical
method of leading the life of ‘vanaprastas’.
After such training one is eligible to become a sanyasi. This period is known as Vanaprastashrama.
d)
Upanishads:
Upanishads means ‘sitting down
near’. It means sitting down near the
teacher to receive instructions. The
Upanishads are full of instructions given by the teachers to the disciples. Gradually Upanishad came to mean what was
received from the teacher, a sort of secret doctrine ‘Rahasya’. This period is known as Sanyasashrama.
Vedic contents could be classified
into three ‘cantos’ as follows:
i.
Karma
Kanda: Pertaining to codes of conduct.
ii.
Upasana
Kanda: Pertaining to contemplation.
iii.
Gnana
Kanda: Pertaining to knowledge and wisdom.
Mantras and Brahmanas form the Karma Kanda. Aranyakas belong to Upasana Kanda and
Upanishads constitute the Gnana Kanda.
Features of Vedic
Education:
i.
Aims:
Development of spiritual
personality, inherent potentialities, sense of social responsibility is the
main aims of Vedic education. Education
should help pupil for self-realization.
ii.
Curriculum:
Vedic curriculum includes learning
of Vedas, Upanishads, Siksha, Kalpa, Vyakarna, Niraktha, Chanda and Jyothisha. In the later periods Ramayana, Mahabharata,
PanchaKavya, Aethasasthira, Dharma Sasthira, Smruthis, etc. were also included
in curriculum.
iii.
Gurugula
system of education:
In gurugula system of education,
the students lived in the house of the guru and received education. The student lived in close contact with the
guru in gurugulas. He served and
worshipped the guru as his own father or God.
Admission of students was based on moral fitness. When education came to an end the students
offered ‘Gurudashina’ to his teacher in return for the service received.
iv.
Education
for all:
Everybody was given education. There was no caste and sex difference among
the people. Girls were educated at home
and they were taught even music and dancing.
Education was not provided for physically and mentally handicapped.
v.
Upanayana
ceremony:
Upanayana ceremony was arranged
between at the age of four and nine.
Only after this, child could enter into the curriculum.
vi.
Teacher
student relationship:
Every student was required to serve
his teacher compulsorily. The student
duties included keeping the gurugula neat, grazing cows, collecting fire wood,
etc. Medical treatment and taking care
of the students were considered as the duties of the teacher. The student obeyed the guru fully.
vii.
Methods
of teaching:
Knowledge was received from the
lips of the teacher. Special attention
was given to pronunciation. As the
classes were small, it was possible to pay individual attention.
·
Oral explanations,
recitation, memorization and demonstration were the predominant teaching –
learning techniques.
·
Sanskrit was the medium
of instruction.
·
Students used ‘Sravana’
(hearing), ‘Manana’ (Reflection) and “Nididyasara’ (Meditation) as the methods
to master knowledge.
·
Students’ knowledge and
skills were testified in ‘Sadas’ where discussions and debates were held.
viii.
Teacher:
The teacher called ‘Guru’ was a man
of character, eminent in knowledge, highly proficient in Vedas, totally self –
less in his actions, kind and compassionate towards the pupils, repository of
all virtues and interested in simple/humble living. He was the living role model for his
disciples.
According to Upanishads,
introspection, teacher’s ‘Diksha’ (Guidance), devotion to God and the teacher
are the requisites for one’s self – realization.
Merits of Vedic
Education
1. Education
was free for all eligible learners.
2. Teaching-learning
process took place in natural surroundings.
3. Pupils
lived a simple and pure life of ‘Brahmacharya’ by avoiding things of sensutory,
comforts and luxury. Humility,
character, discipline, responsibility, devotion in work etc. were the virtues insisted on every pupil.
4. There
was intimate relationship between the teacher and the taught. The individual nature of every learner was
known to the teacher and education was imparted accordingly. The teacher, without any expectations from
his pupils or their families, provided education by teaching what all he knew.
5. Teachers
commanded high respect and dignity from all the sections of the society.
6. All
pupils were treated alike irrespective of their social status.
Demerits of Vedic
Education
1. Education
was provided only to Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaisyas and denied to Sudhras.
2. Women
education was not given any importance.
3. Medium
of instruction was Sanskrit and not the language of the masses.
4. Some
considered the service rendered by pupils in the household activities of the
teacher, as slavery.
5. Vedas
were given undue importance in the curriculum.
Educational
Implications of Vedic Education
1. Scholars
of Indian Education and other educators try to trace the origin and development
of Indian Education back to the Rig Veda which is the oldest literature
available to Indian Educational thoughts.
2. Vedic
people enjoyed a unique socio-politico-economic civilization.
3. During
Vedic period one can easily imagine that the subject matter was not limited
only to philosophical speculation but also to social sciences and military
sciences.
4. Vedic
education appears to have laid emphasis on equality of educational opportunity. There was no discrimination on the basis of
caste or creed.
5. Character
building, development of personality and national integration must have been
regarded as aims of education.
6. Vedic
Sanskrit was the medium of instruction and oral tradition was in vogue.
7. Memorization
was the centre of method of learning and teaching.
Bhagavat Gita
This literally means the ‘The Lord’s Songs’. It is called the ‘Gospel of Humanity’. In size, the Gita is a little book of 700
verses, divided into 18 chapters. It is
in the form of a dialogue between Arjuna, a noted commander of the Pandava
forces and Shri Krishna an earthly incarnation of God. The setting of the dialogue is highly
dramatic. Arjuna is facing the huge army
of his cousins with their supporters, many of whom are his elders including his
‘Guru’ Dronacharya. Arjuna is to strike
them for the enforcement of their claim (Five Pandavas)to the part of the
ancestral kingdom which is not accepted by Duryodhana, the eldest of the
Kauravas. The sight of his dear ones
dissolves his determination to fight and he lays down his arms and thinks of
renouncing the world. Shri Krishna, who
is acting as his charioteer urges him to fight his right cause. Krishna succeeds in persuading Arjuna who
ultimately wins the struggle.
Essence of Gita
The central point of Gita is the
philosophy of action. It commends a
strenuous life but does not give any room for play of selfish impulses. It pleads for the renunciation in action and
not renunciation of action. Lift the
aspirant from the lower level of renunciation where objects are renounced to
the higher level where desires are dead.
The yogi dwells in calm and ceaseless contemplation while his body and
mind are actively employed in discharging the duties that fall to his lot.
The Gita is a philosophy of ‘Karma’
(Action) based on ‘Gnana’ (Knowledge) and supported by ‘Bhakti’
(Devotion). To fight against the evil is
the duty of man. Thus Gita represents a
unique synthesis of Action, Devotion and
Knowledge. Dispassionate devotion to one’s duty and
detachment with the fruits of action constitute “Nishkamya Karma”. Such Karma yogis attain Moksha or
communication with God through dedication.
Educational Implication
of Gita
The doctrine of ‘Karma Yoga’ is the
gift of Gita. “Nishkamya Karma” is the
path of blending action, devotion and knowledge. Every aspect of education is to raise the
individual to a higher level of spirituality through self-realization. Education should help to stimulate physical,
intellectual, social and moral development in every individual. Education should turn individuals into human
beings and ultimately make them discover their inner divinity. Education should neither turn individuals
into efficient machines nor sub serve the cause of any kind of
discrimination. The ultimate aim of
education is the exaltation of human personality by achieving self-realization.
In short, we can say Gita sets the following
guidelines for students and teachers.
1. Be Manly:
Self-reliance is the most important trait.
Be bold and cheerful. Don’t give
room for any despondency. Self-effort is
the key note for success.
2. Do your Duty:
Do it sincerely with complete involvement. Shradda means ‘devotion to duty’.
3. Find out the sources of
Evil and develop a Balanced Mind: Humanity,
uprightness, service to the teacher, purity, steadiness, self-control are some
of the good qualities to be developed.
Fear, prejudice, egoism, inaction, laziness and brooding should be
avoided.
4. Don’t follow extremes: Follow
the middle path. Renunciation and
attachment to worldly things must be synthesized. The Gita does not preach asceticism. It preaches action performed in a selfless,
detached manner.
5. Be of service to
others: The perfect man has also to work for the
benefit of humanity, with no desire to reap the fruit.
6. Be a Jnani: There are four kinds of devotees of God (1)
The suffering (aarta), (2) The seeker of truth (jijnasu), (3) The self
interested (artharthi) and (4) The wise (jnani). The last one is the best. He alone knows reality in the real sense of
the term. He sees the Lord in everything
and everything in the Lord.
7. Remember the three
qualities in Men – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas: Greed,
unrest and belonging arise when Rajas is predominant. Darkness, inertness and wrong understanding
arise when Tamas is predominant. One who
is calm, dispassionate, intelligent and unperturbed has Sattva predominant in
him.
Teachers should be pure in their thoughts and
actions; elf-controlled and impartial; humble and honest, single minded in
their efforts to uplift the students by radiating wisdom and virtues.
Jainism
The word Jainism finds its root ‘Jina’ which means
‘Conquerer’. As a school of religion, it
is much older than Buddhism. Jainism is
popularly ascribed to Mahavira(599-527
B.C.), although according to orthodox view Jainism is eternal and periodically
revealed by Tirthankaras– Path Finder’s,
Rishbhadeva being the first and Mahavira, the last prophet (24thTirthankara). Mahavira renounced the palace, property and
the family. He is said to have practiced
austerities for about 12 years. Jainism
could be considered as a midway between Vedic religion and Buddhism.
Important Philosophical
Thoughts of Jainism
1. The
Universe is brought under two categories – ‘Jiva’ and ‘Ajiva’ – the conscious
and the unconscious spirit. ‘Jiva’ can
be compared to ‘Athman’. It is capable
of expansion and contraction. It
resembles a lamp which illuminates the whole of the space enclosed in a small
room. ‘Ajiva’ could be categorized into
Kala (time), Akasa (sky), Dharma, Adhara (space), and other inanimate things.
2. Reality
is of many and not confined to a single entity.
He, who knows all the qualities of one thing, knows all the qualities of
all things. Human knowledge is relative
and limited.
3. Reality
is unity in difference and difference in unity.
Jainism emphasizes the partial views.
It is called ‘Syathvada’.
4. Ignorance
is the cause of bondage. Right knowledge
leads to liberation or ‘Nirvana’. Along
with ‘Right Knowledge’, ‘Right Faith’ and ‘Right Conduct’ constitute the three
jewels (Tri-rathna) of Jainism. So
Jainism is primarily ethical.
5. ‘Right
Conduct’ implies 5 abstinences: (a)
Non-stealing (b) Non-Utterance of lies (c) Ahimsa (Non-violence)(d) Celibacy
and (e) renunciation. The last two are
not for the laymen; they are meant for the saints. For laymen they are replaced by ‘Purity’ and
‘Satisfaction’.
6. The
final aim is the full development of personality. Individual and social aspects of personality
are equally emphasized.
7. Jainism
is a religion of self-help. It denies
the existence of a separate God. But
considers every liberated soul as God.
8. Jainism
gives total freedom of expression to man.
It states that nothing meditates between one’s action and its results.
Educational
Implications of Jainism
1. Development
of the personality of each individual student is the aim of education. Jainism does not have any predetermined
absolute goals. It believes in the development
of the self.
2. Knowledge
is relative. By knowing the different
parts one may hope to get all about one, relatively.
3. The
many sidedness of personality should be taken care of.
4. The
moral aspect of the individual’s growth in terms of right conduct was
emphasized.
5. Emphasis
on self-discipline and hard work.
6. Happiness and bliss
through action.
Man is a free moral agent, responsible for all his deliberate action.
7. Practical
discipline is essential for release from the bondage.
8. ‘Punya’
and ‘paap’ are the two principles of the Nine-categories. Hence, education should develop sense of discrimination.
9. The
spiritual aspect was stressed.
10. Curriculum
was based on the three Ratnas – right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
11. Mother
tongue was the medium of instruction.
12. Debate
and discussion were used as the methods of instruction. Memorization was given a prime place in
learning.
13. Residential
living of the pupils, along with the teacher was stressed.
14. Teaching
should be social and tolerant, and should bring happiness to all.
15. Knowledge
is through senses and meditation. Teaching must develop these faculties.
Buddhism
Like Islam and Christianity which
are world religions, Buddhism, the religion founded by Lord Buddha, who was
born in India in the 6th Century B. C. is also a world religion
having followers all over the globe. It
is an offshoot of the later Vedic period involving many rituals and practices
like offering animal sacrifice, burning the wife in the pyre of her husband
etc. The preaching of Upanishads could
not be understood by the average laymen in the society. People were longing for a religion that
related to their practical life and offered solutions to their sufferings and
pains. At this juncture Siddhartha born
in the Royal family of Kapilavasthu (now located in Nepal), renounced all the
comforts of a princely life for undertaking penance. He got enlightment and became Gouthama
Buddha. He preached the way for
overcoming human sufferings and attains salvation, which go by the name Buddhism. He wrote no books. He was mainly a social reformer and an
ethical teacher.
Tripitaka or the three Baskets of
tradition are the main sources of Buddhist philosophy. In due course, his teachings were written by
his disciples in book form. The three works are ‘Suttas’ (utterances), ‘Vinaya’
(rules of discipline) and ‘Abhidhamma’ (philosophical discussion).
The Teachings of Buddha
There are three important aspects of
Buddha’s philosophy.
1.
The
Four Noble Truths
i.
There is suffering
ii.
There is a cause of
suffering
iii.
There is cessation of
suffering
iv.
There is a way leading
to cessation of suffering (NIRVANA)
2.
The
Eightfold Path to Nirvana
i.
Right Faith
ii.
Right Resolve
iii.
Right Speech
iv.
Right Action
v.
Right Living
vi.
Right Effort
vii.
Right thought
viii.
Right Concentration
3.
Dependent
Origination
This is the foundation of all the
teachings of Buddha. This is contained
in the second and third Noble Truths.
Every object of thought is relative.
All phenomenal things hang between reality and nothingness avoiding both
the extremes. This is the Middle
Path. Thus we get the 12 links of the
causal wheel of Dependent Origination.
They are:
i.
Ignorance
ii.
Impressions of Karmic
Forces
iii.
Initial consciousness
of the Embryo
iv.
Psycho-physical
organism
v.
Six Sense organs
including mind
vi.
Sense object contact
vii.
Sense experience
viii.
Thirst for sense
enjoyment
ix.
Changing to enjoyment
x.
The will to be born
xi.
Birth or Re-birth
xii.
Old age and Death
The first two are related to
past-life and the last two to future life and the rest to present life. This is the cycle of birth and death. This is the vicious circle of causation. Death is only a beginning of life. Ignorance is bondage; knowledge is
liberation.
The Buddhist system of
education
The Buddhist system of education
started as a monastic movement at the dawn of 600 BC, and continued as a very
powerful force till 1200 AD. Education
of the child began with an initiation ceremony known as the Pabbajja.
Pabbajja
The word ‘Pabbajja’
means ‘to go out’. The child goes out of
his family to join the sangham at the age of eight. The child gets his head shaved. With yellow cloth in his hand he goes to the
head of the monks of the Sangham and requests him to admit him to the
Sangham. The monk accepts him and causes
him to dress in yellow cloth. He becomes
a member of the Sangham after taking the following oaths:
Buddham
Saranam Gachami (I take refuge with Buddha)
Dharmam
Saranam Gachami (I take refuge with Religion)
Sangham
Saranam Gachami (I take refuge with Sangham)
Now
he becomes a number of the Sangham and he is known as “Samner” or “Samanera” or
Shramana”. To perform Pabbajja was given
to all, irrespective of caste or sex.
Restrictions on
Admission
A candidate could not be admitted
into ‘Sangham’ in the following conditions:
i.
Without the permission
of his parents.
ii.
Patient of any
infections or serious diseases.
iii.
Convict of any serious
moral sin.
iv.
Under any legal
responsibility and who was not free from legal bondage.
v.
Not found generous and
laborious during the probation period, which sometimes were four or five days.
Rules for the students
The admitted student was called
“Samner”. He had to follow the following
rules:
i.
Not to kill any living
being.
ii.
Not to accept anything
given to him.
iii.
Live free from the
impurity of character.
iv.
Not to tell a lie.
v.
Not to use any
intoxicating thing.
vi.
Not to take food at
improper time.
vii.
Not to speak ill of
anybody.
viii.
Not to take any
interest in music, dance, play show, etc.
ix.
Not to use luxurious
and scented things.
x.
Not to accept the gifts
of gold or silver, etc.
The ten rules were essentially observed by the new
monk. The Sammer lives with his teacher,
upadyaya was similar to that existed between the shishya and the Guru of the
Vedic period. After 12 years of life in
the Sangham, at the age of 20 he undergoes another ceremony known as
“Upasampada”.
Upasampada
At the age of 20 the final ceremony
of Upasampada is administered to the Shramana.
In the Buddhist system the period of Brahmacharya is continued. The method of performing ‘Upasampada’ was
slightly different from ‘Pabbajja’.
While Pabbajja was ritual for a limited period, Upasampada was
permanent. It was for the whole life.
The Upasampada ceremony makes the
Shramana, a permanent member of the Sangham.
There is perfect democracy in the process of admitting one to the
Sangham. The ceremony is administered
only after getting the consent of the majority.
The Shramana would dress himself in yellow as a monk, with the bowl in
one hand. His upper robe would cover one
shoulder. In this style he would sit and
bow down to the other monks and select one monk as his upadyaya. After this he would eat only what he got in
his begging bowl; he should dress only in rags collected; he should take
shelter only in the shade of trees; he should take cows urine as medicine. When he likes to leave the Sangham, he can do
so after making a declaration of his weakness.
Aims of education
The ultimate aim of education during
the Buddhist period was the freedom of the soul from the sufferings of
life. In other words, the aim of
education was to help man to achieve Nirvana.
The chief aim of education was spiritual. The other aims of education like happiness of
society, development of democratic and civic sense, proficiency in crafts, art,
business, astronomy, military science, humanities etc.
Content of Education
In the curriculum for the lay-men
stress was on secular subjects.
Curriculum for the monks consisted of Pali and Sanskrit language, the
sacred texts Pitakas, Hindu religion, logic, philosophy, Grammar etc. The curriculum for lay-men consisted of study
of Pali and Sanskrit, study of sacred literature, logic, metaphysics,
astrology, astronomy, politics, administration etc.
Education during the Buddhist period
could be classified into two – Primary Education and Higher Education. The content of Primary Education consisted of
the learning of the 3R’s. The curriculum
of Higher Education consisted of religion, philosophy, medicine, military
science, fine arts, grammar, poetry etc.
Taxila and Nalanda were two
important universities of the period.
Students who reached the 16th year could join Taxila. The subjects like the Vedas, Vedanta,
Vyakarna, Ayurveda, Eighteen Crafts, Military education, Astronomy,
Agriculture, Commerce, Snakebite cure, Grammar etc., were taught. Nalanda was another centre of higher
education. Nalanda reached the peak of
its glory in the 4th Century A.D.
At one time there were 1500 learned professors there. It was a residential University. Students were provided with free food, cloth
and medicine. There was no restriction
on the basis of caste and nationality for admission. People from China and other foreign countries
used to come there. Vedas, Vyakaranas, Astrology, Philosophy, Puranas, Medical
Science etc., formed the curriculum.
There was provision for comparative study of all religions.
Methods of Teaching
Ø During
this period of Buddhism writing was developed, the oral method was followed.
Ø Generally
question-answer and explanation method was followed.
Ø Discussions,
debates and seminars were a common feature of the system.
Ø An
inductive method of teaching was very popular.
Ø Learning
by doing was the principle in vocational training.
The Qualifications of
the Teacher
In Buddhist educational system much
stress was laid on the efficiency of the teachers. This has been described as follows:
a) High Moral Order:
The teacher himself must have spent
at least ten years as monk. He must have
the purity of character, purity of thoughts and generosity, etc.
b) High Mental Order:
Essentially the teacher was
expected to be of a high mental order, so that he might teach his disciple the
religion and nobleness and he may also successfully combat the wrong religious
notions.
Duties of the Teacher
·
The teacher was
responsible for the proper education and upkeep of the disciple.
·
The teacher had to
fulfil the needs of the disciple during the education period.
·
The teacher had to
treat them affectionately.
·
The teacher was
responsible for their physical and mental development.
·
At the time of sickness
the teacher would attend to the treatment and care of his students.
Educational
Implications of Buddhism
1.
Buddhist
philosophy is pessimistic at the start. But it admits the possibility of attaining
peace here and now and therefore it is not a cry of despair. Teachers therefore are to reconcile
themselves to reality and should not be unduly pessimistic and negativistic in
their approach.
2.
It
is positivistic.
His teaching in its essence is positivistic. He does not recognize anything beyond the
sphere of perception and reason. There
is careful logical systematization of ideas and thoughts.
3.
It
is pragmatic.
Buddha taught only what is necessary for overcoming evils whose
prevalence is the chief characteristic of life.
Everything is momentary. Change
is the rule of the universe.
4.
It
is relativistic. The theory of dependent origination and
causalities present the view that the various aspects are inter linked.
5.
It
is ethical. Its
codes of conduct are of universal appeal.
The eightfold path to Nirvana or Liberation is prescribed in the nature
of moral commandments. Nirvana is to be
achieved by eradication of passionate tendencies.
6.
It
is democratic.
It believes in the freedom for enquiry.
It allows different lines of argument.
7.
Its
belief in Karma. It
lays stress on the need for constant vigilance in maintaining one’s good
conduct in real life. Salvation means
freedom from suffering. It is a state of
perfect peace and equanimity and connotes a habit of mind. This perfect have to develop a calm and
balanced outlook to make the individual pupil put forth his best.
8.
The
method of instruction was oral. The scheme of instruction involved the
processes of comprehension, elucidation, elaboration and transmission.
Constructivism
Constructivism
is a learning theory that describes the nature of knowledge and how human
beings learn. Constructivism is the
philosophy we construct, our own understanding of the world we living. Each of us generates our own rules and mental
models which used to make sense of our experiences. In the constructivist perceptive, knowledge
is constructed by the individual through his interaction with his
environment. According to constructivist
learning is construction of knowledge.
The main goals of constructivist teaching are student empowerment and
autonomy. Constructivist teaching
posters, critical thinking and motivated an independent learner.
In
constructivist approach knowledge is not given to the students directly. Students are involved in the process of
learning to reach new understanding.
Students form their own understanding and construct their own knowledge.
Types
of Constructivism
i.
Psychological Constructivism
Piaget is a
chief exponent of psychological constructivism.
It is also known as cognitive constructivism. It implies that knowledge is the result of
accurate internalization and reconstruction of external reality.
ii.
Social Constructivism
Social constructivism was developed by the Soviet psychologist ‘Lev
Vygotsky’. Social constructivist view
learning as a social process. According
to them learning is an interaction between the learner and learning environment
during which the learner uses his prior knowledge to interpret and construct
new understanding.
iii.
Radical Constructivism
Radical constructivism assumes that knowledge is constructed from once
experience but it’s not a true experience of reality.
Principles
of Constructivism
Ø Learning is a search for meaning; therefore learning
must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to
construct meaning.
Ø Meaning requires understanding whole, as well as
parts.
Ø In order to teach well one must understand the mental
models that students used to perceive the world and the assumptions they make
to support models.
Ø The purpose of learning is for an individual to
construct his/her own meaning not just memorize the right answers but
understand someone else meaning.
Teacher
Teacher is a facilitator. He facilitates knowledge construction
process. He is gain co – explorer who
encourages learners to Question, Challenge and Formulate their own ideas,
opinions and conclusions. He considers
individual differences among learners.
In constructivist class, teacher is one of many resources for students.
Curriculum
Constructivism
calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Constructivist curriculum promotes using
curricula customized to the student’s prior knowledge. It gives importance to hand’s – on problem
solving also give stress on activity centred learning.
Methods
of Teaching
Ø Activity centred learning.
Ø Educators focus on making connection between facts and
fostering new understanding in students.
Ø Teachers adopt new teaching strategy by creating group
learning activity to encourage students ‘to analyse, interpret and predict
information.
Ø Teachers can put open ended Questions and promote
extensive dialogue among students.
Learners
/ Students
Ø Learner is in the central position. He is the meaning maker.
Ø Learner actively interacts with the teacher and peers.
Ø He is free. He
shares responsibility with the teachers.
He performs learning tasks or activities one by one at his pace,
Ø He faces new situations uses his prior knowledge and
construct his own knowledge.
Assessment
/ Evaluation
Constructivism calls for the elimination for
standardized testing. Instead it should
become the part of the learning process.
So that students play a large role or judge their own progress. Both product and process are evaluated. Comprehensive and continuous evaluation is
done. Self evaluation, peer evaluation
and teacher evaluation occur in the class room.
Merits
Ø Learning involves inventing ideas rather than
accumulating facts.
Ø New ideas occur as we change our old ideas.
Ø It encourages learning rather than instruction.
Ø Interaction with learning environment is stressed.
Ø Contextual learning.
Ø Students centred.
Ø Group activity.
Ø Continuous and comprehensive is adopted.
Ø Teacher as a guide.
Ø Encourages reflective thinking.
Ø Support co – operative.
Ø Treats errors in gentle way.
Limitations
Ø Consumes more time requires highly competent teachers.
Ø Places, higher demands on learners.
Ø Starting the class from the knowledge base of the
learners. It is not possible in class with
students of multi-ability level.
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